Characteristics:

• Modal System: Medieval music was primarily based on a system of modes, which were melodic patterns or scales. Modes provided a framework for composing and improvising melodies, and each mode had its own distinct characteristics and emotional qualities.
• Monophonic Texture: Most medieval music was monophonic, meaning it consisted of a single melodic line without any accompanying harmony. Polyphony, or the combination of multiple melodic lines, emerged towards the end of the medieval period.
• Sacred and Secular Music: Medieval music was predominantly religious, with a strong emphasis on sacred music composed for the Catholic Church. Gregorian chant, a form of monophonic plainchant, was a central component of sacred music. However, there was also secular music composed for entertainment and non-religious occasions.
• Vocal Dominance: Singing was the primary means of musical expression during the medieval period. Instruments were used to accompany or embellish vocal performances rather than being standalone entities. Commonly used instruments included the organ, harp, lute, vielle (a precursor to the violin), and recorder.
• Lack of Notation: In the early medieval period, there was no standardized system of musical notation. Music was primarily passed down through oral tradition, and composers relied on the memorization and transmission of melodies. Later in the medieval period, neumes (early notation symbols) and eventually early forms of staff notation were developed to notate pitch and rhythm.
• Modal Harmony: While medieval music was primarily monophonic, when polyphony emerged, it was characterized by a type of harmony called "organum." Organum involved adding additional melodic lines, often in parallel or octaves, to an existing plainchant melody. The resulting harmonies were based on the modes and created a sense of vertical sonority.

Timeline

• 500-900: This period is often referred to as the Early Medieval or the Dark Ages. During this time, music was predominantly monophonic, consisting of plainchant or Gregorian chant. The monastic centers played a vital role in preserving and developing this sacred music.
• 900-1200: This period marks the emergence of polyphony, particularly in the form of organum, which involved the addition of one or more voices to a pre-existing chant. The Notre Dame School in Paris, with composers like Léonin and Pérotin, was at the forefront of these developments. Measured rhythm and rhythmic modes were also introduced during this time.
• 1100-1300: This period witnessed the growth of secular music alongside sacred music. The troubadours (southern France) and trouvères (northern France) were important poet-musicians who composed and performed secular songs on topics such as courtly love and chivalry. This era also saw the rise of the Minnesang tradition in Germany, which encompassed courtly love songs and poetry.
• 1300-1400: This period, known as the Ars Nova, was characterized by significant developments in rhythm, notation, and musical expression. Composers like Guillaume de Machaut and Philippe de Vitry contributed to these advancements. The motet, a polyphonic vocal genre, gained popularity during this time.
• Late 1300s: The musical style of the Ars Subtilior emerged during this period, characterized by complex rhythmic structures, intricate notation, and experimental compositional techniques. Composers such as Baude Cordier and Johannes Ciconia were associated with this style.
• Late 1400s: The end of the medieval period saw a transitional phase known as the Renaissance. The musical style shifted towards a greater emphasis on humanism, with composers like Josquin des Prez bridging the gap between medieval and Renaissance music.

Forms

• Gregorian Chant: Gregorian chant, also known as plainchant or plainsong, was the central form of sacred music in medieval Western Europe. It consists of monophonic melodies sung in Latin and was primarily used in liturgical settings within the Catholic Church. Gregorian chant is characterized by its free-flowing, non-metric rhythm and modal melodies.
  - "Dies Irae"
• Organum: Organum was an early form of polyphony that emerged in the 9th century. It involved adding one or more melodic lines (often parallel or at a fixed interval) to an existing plainchant melody. The resulting harmonies created a sense of vertical sonority and were based on the modal system.
  - "Viderunt Omnes" by Pérotin
• Motet: The motet originated in the 13th century as a polyphonic vocal composition. It typically featured multiple texts sung simultaneously, with each voice part having its own distinct words and sometimes languages. Motets often combined sacred and secular texts and were performed in both religious and secular contexts.
  - "Ave Maria...virgo serena" by Josquin des Prez
• Troubadour and Trouvère Songs: These were secular songs composed and performed by troubadours in the southern regions of France and by trouvères in northern France. These songs, written in the vernacular language, focused on themes of courtly love, chivalry, and social commentary. They were typically monophonic, accompanied by instruments such as the lute or vielle.
  - "Can vei la lauzeta mover" by Bernart de Ventadorn
• Dance Music: Medieval dance music included various instrumental compositions and songs meant for dancing. Popular dance forms included the estampie, saltarello, and carol. These pieces were often performed on instruments such as the vielle, recorder, and percussion instruments.
• Mass and Liturgical Music: Sacred music for the Catholic Mass was an essential part of medieval musical repertoire. Mass compositions included the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. Composers such as Guillaume de Machaut and Hildegard von Bingen contributed to the development of elaborate polyphonic Mass settings.
  - "Messe de Nostre Dame" by Guillaume de Machaut

Composers

• Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179): Hildegard was a remarkable figure in medieval music. She was a German abbess, writer, philosopher, and composer. Her compositions, known as monophonic plainchant, were primarily sacred and included Gregorian chant melodies with her own poetic texts. Hildegard's music is known for its expressive melodic lines and distinctive style.
  - "Ordo Virtutum" (Play of the Virtues): This is a sacred music drama composed by Hildegard. It is one of her most notable works, featuring multiple characters and conveying moral and spiritual themes through monophonic chant and dialogue.
• Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300-1377): Guillaume de Machaut was a French composer and poet of the Ars Nova period. He was one of the most influential composers of his time, renowned for his polyphonic compositions. Machaut's works include Mass settings, motets, chansons (secular songs), and lyric poetry. His compositions exhibited complex harmonies, rhythmic intricacies, and rich expressive qualities.
  - "Messe de Nostre Dame" (Mass of Our Lady): This is Machaut's most famous and influential composition. It is a polyphonic setting of the Ordinary of the Mass, showcasing his mastery of complex harmonies, intricate counterpoint, and expressive musical techniques.
• Pérotin (fl. late 12th century): Pérotin, also known as Perotin the Great, was a composer associated with the Notre Dame School in Paris. He made significant contributions to the development of polyphonic music, particularly in the genre of organum. Pérotin expanded upon the work of Léonin and introduced multiple voice parts in his compositions, creating intricate and ornate polyphonic textures.
  - "Viderunt omnes" (All the ends of the earth): This composition is one of Pérotin's most renowned works. It is a four-voice organum setting of a Gregorian chant, representing the height of the Notre Dame polyphonic style with its elaborate and intricate textures.
• Léonin (fl. late 12th century): Léonin, a composer also associated with the Notre Dame School, is considered one of the earliest known composers of polyphonic music. He is known for his compositions of organum, particularly in the form of the Magnus Liber Organi (Great Book of Organum), which contained settings of Gregorian chant with additional voices.
  - "Magnus Liber Organi": As an anonymous composer, Léonin is associated with the compilation of the "Magnus Liber Organi." This collection features numerous works of organum, including the aforementioned "Viderunt omnes."
• Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361): Philippe de Vitry was a prominent composer, music theorist, and poet of the Ars Nova period. He played a crucial role in the development of rhythmic notation and theory. Vitry's compositions exhibited rhythmic complexities and innovations, including the use of isorhythm (repeated rhythmic patterns) and syncopation.
  - "Ars Nova": Philippe de Vitry is primarily known for his theoretical contributions rather than specific compositions. He played a significant role in the development of the "Ars Nova" style, which introduced new rhythmic notations and innovations in musical expression.
• Adam de la Halle (c. 1237-1288): Adam de la Halle, also known as Adam le Bossu, was a French trouvère, poet, and composer. He composed a wide range of secular songs, including chansons and jeux-partis (poetic debates). His works showcased the courtly love tradition and were influential in shaping the secular musical landscape of the time.
  - "Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion" (The Play of Robin and Marion): This is a musical play attributed to Adam de la Halle and is considered one of the earliest surviving secular musical works. It tells a lighthearted story through songs, dialogue, and instrumental accompaniment, capturing the spirit of courtly love and pastoral themes.

Schools and Movements

• Notre Dame School: The Notre Dame School, associated with the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, was a significant center for musical innovation in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Composers such as Léonin and Pérotin developed the art of polyphony, particularly organum, in which multiple melodic lines were combined. The rhythmic innovations of this school, including the use of measured rhythm and rhythmic modes, had a lasting impact on subsequent musical developments.
• Ars Antiqua and Ars Nova: The terms "Ars Antiqua" (meaning "old art") and "Ars Nova" (meaning "new art") were used to describe two distinct musical styles that emerged in the 14th century. The Ars Antiqua period, which preceded the Ars Nova, was characterized by the refined polyphonic compositions of composers such as Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. The Ars Nova period brought about significant changes in rhythm, notation, and musical expression, as seen in the works of composers such as Machaut and Johannes Ciconia.
• Troubadour and Trouvère Traditions: The troubadours in southern France and the trouvères in northern France were influential poet-musicians who flourished in the 11th to 13th centuries. They composed and performed secular songs that focused on themes of courtly love, chivalry, and social commentary. The troubadour and trouvère traditions contributed to the development of vernacular song and poetry, and their compositions had a lasting impact on the secular music of subsequent centuries.
• German Minnesang: Minnesang was a German tradition of courtly love poetry and song that flourished from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Minnesänger (poet-musicians) composed and performed songs of courtly love in the vernacular language. Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach were notable minnesängers who contributed to this tradition.
• Spanish Cantigas: The Cantigas de Santa Maria, composed in the 13th century under the patronage of King Alfonso X of Castile, is a collection of songs in Galician-Portuguese. These songs were dedicated to the Virgin Mary and encompass a wide range of topics. The Cantigas feature monophonic and polyphonic textures, often accompanied by instrumental accompaniment, and provide insights into the musical practices of the Iberian Peninsula during the medieval period.
• English Chant and Polyphony: England had its own unique musical traditions during the medieval period. The English Chant tradition, represented by the Sarum Chant and Worcester Fragments, had distinct characteristics compared to Gregorian chant. Additionally, English polyphonic compositions, such as those found in the Old Hall Manuscript, showcased intricate and expressive counterpoint.

Medieval vs. Renaissance

• Polyphony vs. Monophony: One of the most significant differences is the shift from primarily monophonic music in the Medieval period to intricate polyphonic music in the Renaissance. Renaissance composers, such as Josquin des Prez and Palestrina, developed complex polyphonic textures with multiple melodic lines that harmonize together.
• Text Setting: In Medieval music, the focus was often on the sacred text and the expression of religious devotion. The music was primarily designed to enhance the meaning of the text. In the Renaissance, while text was still important, composers began to prioritize the musicality of the composition itself, aiming for balanced and beautiful musical structures.
• Secular Music: The Renaissance witnessed a rise in secular music and the development of new genres such as the madrigal and chanson. These secular forms explored themes of love, nature, and human experiences, expanding the musical repertoire beyond religious themes.
• Use of Modes: Medieval music was primarily based on the modal system, where specific scales or modes were used as the foundation for composition. The Renaissance period saw a gradual shift towards the use of tonality and the development of major and minor keys, which became the basis for harmonic progressions.
• Musical Notation: The Renaissance period saw advancements in musical notation, with the introduction of new symbols and techniques to represent rhythms and pitches more accurately. This allowed composers to write more complex and precise musical compositions.
• Rise of Instrumental Music: While instrumental music existed in the Medieval period, it was predominantly secondary to vocal music. In the Renaissance, instrumental music gained more prominence and independence. Composers such as Giovanni Gabrieli and William Byrd composed significant instrumental works.

Characteristics

• Polyphony: Renaissance music is known for its intricate polyphonic texture. Composers such as Josquin des Prez and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina crafted multiple melodic lines that intertwine and complement each other, creating a rich and harmonically complex sound.
• Vocal Music: Vocal music was predominant during the Renaissance period, with choral compositions playing a significant role. Sacred choral music, including masses and motets, was highly esteemed, as were secular vocal genres such as madrigals and chansons.
• Imitation: Renaissance composers used imitation as a prominent compositional technique. Melodic ideas were presented in one voice and then imitated by other voices, creating a sense of unity and cohesion within the musical composition.
• Modal System: Renaissance music was based on a modal system, in which specific scales or modes were used as the foundation for composition. Modes such as Dorian, Phrygian, and Mixolydian were commonly employed, each with its distinct melodic and harmonic characteristics.
• Word Painting: Composers in the Renaissance period often used a technique known as word painting, where the music reflects the meaning of the text being sung. For example, ascending melodic lines may depict joy or triumph, while descending lines may convey sadness or lamentation.
• Choral Singing Tradition: The rise of Renaissance music coincided with the development of choral singing traditions, particularly in religious settings. Choirs and vocal ensembles became more prominent, and composers wrote music specifically for multiple voices, highlighting the beauty and power of collective singing.

Timeline

• 1400-1420: The early Renaissance period begins with the transition from the Medieval era. Composers like Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois develop the style of the Burgundian School in France.
• 1430-1470: The Franco-Flemish School flourishes, with composers such as Johannes Ockeghem and Jacob Obrecht. They contribute to the refinement of polyphonic techniques and develop complex imitative counterpoint.
• 1470-1520: The High Renaissance period sees the rise of prominent composers, including Josquin des Prez, Antoine Brumel, and Heinrich Isaac. Josquin des Prez is considered one of the greatest composers of the time.
• 1520-1560: The musical style begins to shift with composers like Adrian Willaert and Cipriano de Rore, who embrace the expressive possibilities of chromaticism and experiment with new harmonic structures.
• 1560-1600: The late Renaissance period sees the emergence of the Venetian School, represented by composers such as Giovanni Gabrieli and Andrea Gabrieli. They pioneer the use of multiple choirs and spatial effects in their compositions.

Forms

• Mass: The Mass was a central form of sacred music in the Renaissance period. Composers such as Josquin des Prez, Palestrina, and William Byrd wrote elaborate polyphonic settings of the Mass texts, divided into sections like Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei.
  - Example: "Missa Pange Lingua" by Josquin des Prez
• Motet: The motet was a vocal composition with sacred or sometimes secular texts. Renaissance motets featured intricate polyphony and were often written for multiple voices. They were performed in a variety of contexts, including religious services and courtly settings.
  - Example: "Ave Maria" by William Byrd
• Madrigal: The madrigal was a secular vocal genre that flourished in the Renaissance. It was typically a polyphonic composition with a short poem as the text. Madrigals often explored themes of love, nature, and human emotions. Composers such as Luca Marenzio and Thomas Morley were known for their madrigal compositions.
  - Example: "Il bianco e dolce cigno" by Jacques Arcadelt
• Chanson: The chanson was a popular secular vocal genre in France during the Renaissance. It featured French texts and was typically written for multiple voices. Chansons ranged from light and humorous to more complex and serious compositions.
  - Example: "Mille regretz" by Josquin des Prez
• Dance Music: Renaissance dance music was composed for various types of dances, including pavane, galliard, branle, and allemande. These instrumental compositions were often performed at courtly events and social gatherings.
  - Example: "La Volta" by Michael Praetorius
• Ricercare and Fantasia: These instrumental forms showcased the improvisational and contrapuntal skills of the musicians. Ricercare was a polyphonic composition with an imitative style, while the fantasia was a free-form instrumental composition.
  - Example: "Ricercare No. 2" by Giovanni Gabrieli
• Instrumental Canzona: The instrumental canzona was a popular instrumental form during the Renaissance. It was characterized by contrapuntal writing and often performed by wind or string ensembles.
  - Example: "Canzona La Spiritata" by Girolamo Frescobaldi
• Lute Music: Solo lute music was highly popular during the Renaissance. Composers such as John Dowland and Francesco da Milano wrote intricate and expressive pieces for the lute, exploring a range of forms and techniques.
  - Example: "Fantasia No. 7" by John Dowland

Composers

• Guillaume Dufay (c. 1397-1474): Dufay was a Franco-Flemish composer who played a significant role in the development of Renaissance polyphony. He composed masses, motets, and secular chansons.
  - Famous work: "Missa Se la face ay pale"
• Josquin des Prez (c. 1450-1521): Josquin is considered one of the greatest composers of the Renaissance. His compositions showcase refined polyphonic techniques and expressive harmonies. He wrote numerous masses, motets, and chansons.
  - Famous work: "Missa Pange lingua"
• Palestrina (1525-1594): Palestrina was an Italian composer known for his sacred choral music. His compositions, characterized by smooth melodic lines and clear counterpoint, had a profound influence on Renaissance polyphony.
  - Famous work: "Missa Papae Marcelli"
• Orlando di Lasso (1532-1594): Lasso, also known as Orlande de Lassus, was a Franco-Flemish composer who worked in various European courts. He composed in a wide range of genres, including masses, motets, chansons, and madrigals.
  - Famous work: "Lagrime di San Pietro"
• Thomas Tallis (c. 1505-1585): Tallis was an English composer who served in the Chapel Royal during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. He is known for his sacred choral music, including motets and anthems.
  - Famous work: "Spem in alium"
• William Byrd (1543-1623): Byrd was an English composer and contemporary of Tallis. He composed in both sacred and secular genres, with his works displaying intricate counterpoint and expressive harmonies.
  - Famous work: "Mass for Four Voices"
• Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643): Monteverdi was an Italian composer who bridged the late Renaissance and early Baroque periods. He is often credited with pioneering new musical techniques and styles, particularly in his operas and madrigals.
  - Famous work: "L'Orfeo"

Schools and Movements

• Burgundian School: The Burgundian School, also known as the Franco-Burgundian School, was prominent during the 15th century and centered around the court of the Dukes of Burgundy. Composers like Guillaume Du Fay and Gilles Binchois were associated with this school. They developed the chanson, a secular vocal genre, and contributed to the refinement of polyphonic techniques.
• Franco-Flemish School: This school of composition, based in the region of present-day Belgium and Northern France, produced many renowned composers such as Guillaume Dufay, Josquin des Prez, and Orlando di Lasso. They were known for their mastery of polyphonic writing and their contributions to the development of Renaissance music.
• Roman School: The Roman School was associated with composers active in Rome, Italy, during the late Renaissance. Prominent composers of this school included Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Victoria. They focused on sacred music, particularly in the form of masses and motets, and played a crucial role in the development of polyphony and counterpoint.
• English Madrigal School: Flourishing in England during the late Renaissance, the English Madrigal School was known for its compositions of secular vocal music, particularly madrigals. Prominent composers of this school included Thomas Morley, Thomas Weelkes, and John Wilbye. Their works showcased English poetry set to expressive and lively musical settings.
• Florentine Camerata: The Florentine Camerata was a group of intellectuals, musicians, and poets who gathered in Florence, Italy, during the late Renaissance. They aimed to revive ancient Greek drama and sought to create a new style of music that closely aligned with the emotional expression of the text. This movement had a significant impact on the development of opera.
• Humanism: Humanism, a cultural and intellectual movement, had a profound influence on Renaissance music. Humanist ideas emphasized the importance of human achievement, the pursuit of knowledge, and the expression of individual emotions. Composers embraced the humanistic ideals by focusing on clear and intelligible text expression and exploring the emotional depth of their music.

Renaissance vs. Baroque

• Polyphony vs. Homophony: Renaissance music is known for its intricate polyphonic texture, with multiple melodic lines woven together. In contrast, Baroque music often features a more homophonic texture, with a single melodic line supported by accompanying harmonies.
• Contrapuntal Complexity: Renaissance polyphony emphasized smooth counterpoint and intricate voice-leading, with an equal treatment of all voices. Baroque music, on the other hand, embraced more complex contrapuntal techniques, including fugues and intricate imitative passages.
• Ornamentation: Baroque music is characterized by ornate ornamentation and embellishments, with performers given more freedom for improvisation and personal expression. Renaissance music, while occasionally ornamented, generally adhered to a more restrained and less embellished style.
• Basso Continuo: The Baroque period saw the development of the basso continuo, a bass line accompanied by harmonies indicated by figures (numbers). This allowed for greater flexibility and improvisation in the realization of the harmonies. In contrast, Renaissance music did not typically include a standardized basso continuo.
• Tonality: The Renaissance period was based on a modal system, with modes such as Dorian, Mixolydian, and Phrygian playing a prominent role. Baroque music, however, embraced a shift towards tonality, with major and minor keys serving as the foundation for harmonic progressions.
• Orchestra and Instrumentation: Baroque music saw the rise of larger ensembles and the development of the orchestra. Instruments such as the violin, harpsichord, and trumpet gained prominence and were featured as soloists. In the Renaissance, instrumental music existed but was often secondary to vocal music, with smaller ensembles and chamber music prevalent.
• Dynamics and Expression: Baroque music introduced a greater range of dynamics and expressive devices, including terraced dynamics (abrupt changes in volume) and detailed dynamic markings. Renaissance music, in contrast, relied more on the natural expressiveness of the vocal lines and text painting.
• Forms and Genres: Baroque music featured a wider range of standardized forms and genres, such as the concerto, suite, oratorio, and opera. Renaissance music, while also diverse in its forms, did not have the same level of standardization and development of specific genres.

Characteristics

• Homophony emerged as a prominent texture in Baroque music, marking a shift from the predominantly polyphonic texture of the Renaissance period.
• Basso Continuo: The Baroque period introduced the concept of basso continuo, where a bass line (usually played by a cello or bassoon) is accompanied by a keyboard instrument (such as harpsichord or organ) and sometimes other instruments. The basso continuo provided a harmonic foundation and allowed for improvisation and embellishment within the given framework.
• Use of Figured Bass: Baroque music frequently includes a system of figured bass, where numerical figures are added below the bass line to indicate the desired harmonies. This allowed for flexibility and interpretation by the performer or the accompanying musician.
• Polyphony and Counterpoint: While homophonic textures became more prominent, Baroque music continued to place a strong emphasis on polyphony and intricate counterpoint. Multiple melodic lines interweave and interact, creating rich harmonies and complex musical relationships.
• Ornamentation: Baroque music is known for its elaborate ornamentation and embellishments. Performers were encouraged to add decorative elements such as trills, mordents, and turns to the written music, showcasing their virtuosity and expressive abilities.
• Emotional Expression: Baroque music seeks to evoke and express a wide range of emotions. Composers used harmonic progressions, melodic gestures, and expressive devices to convey specific moods, passions, and dramatic effects.
• Terraced Dynamics: Baroque music commonly employs terraced dynamics, where the volume abruptly shifts between loud and soft levels. Instead of gradual dynamic changes, the music often features distinct levels or "terraces" of volume.
• Orchestral and Chamber Music: Baroque music saw the development of larger orchestral ensembles, as well as smaller chamber groups. Composers utilized a variety of instruments, including strings, woodwinds, brass, and continuo instruments, to create diverse and colorful sounds.

Timeline

1600:

• 1600: The first opera, "Euridice" by Jacopo Peri, is performed in Florence, Italy.
• 1607: Claudio Monteverdi's opera "L'Orfeo" is performed, marking a significant milestone in the development of opera.
• 1614: The first public opera house, Teatro San Cassiano, opens in Venice, Italy.
• 1685: Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel, two influential Baroque composers, are born in Germany.
• 1741: Handel's oratorio "Messiah" is premiered in Dublin, Ireland, becoming one of the most celebrated choral works in history.
• 1750: Bach's Death: Johann Sebastian Bach passes away, marking the end of the Baroque era.

Forms

• Opera: Opera was a prominent and influential form during the Baroque period. It combined music, singing, drama, and elaborate stage sets. Composers such as Claudio Monteverdi, George Frideric Handel, and Jean-Baptiste Lully made significant contributions to the development of opera.
  - Claudio Monteverdi's "L'Orfeo" (1607) is considered one of the earliest operas and showcases the blending of music and drama in the Baroque style.
• Oratorio: Oratorio is a large-scale musical composition for solo voices, choir, and orchestra, typically on a religious or biblical theme.
  - George Frideric Handel's "Messiah" (1741) is one of the most well-known and beloved oratorios of the Baroque period.
• Concerto: The concerto is a musical composition that features a solo instrument or a small group of instruments in dialogue with the orchestra.
  - Antonio Vivaldi's "The Four Seasons" (1725) is a renowned example of Baroque concertos.
• Suite: The suite is a collection of dance movements, often performed in a specific order.
  - Johann Sebastian Bach's "Orchestral Suites" (c. 1720) are notable examples of Baroque suites, featuring dance movements such as allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue.
• Fugue: The fugue is a polyphonic composition in which a main theme, called the subject, is imitated and developed by multiple voices.
  - Johann Sebastian Bach's "Toccata and Fugue in D minor" (BWV 565)
• Chorale: Chorales were hymn-like compositions with simple melodies and harmonies. They were commonly used in Protestant church services.
  - Johann Sebastian Bach's "Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme" (BWV 140), also known as "Sleepers, Awake."
• Sonata: Baroque sonatas were instrumental compositions often written for one or more solo instruments accompanied by basso continuo.
  - One of the best examples of a Baroque sonata is Arcangelo Corelli's "Sonata in D Major, Op. 5, No. 1," often referred to as "La Follia."
• Chamber Music: Chamber music refers to compositions designed for small ensembles to be performed in intimate settings.
  - Georg Philipp Telemann's "Tafelmusik" is a collection of instrumental compositions written in 1733. It consists of three orchestral suites and three chamber trios. The chamber trios showcase the interplay between violin, flute, and continuo, with lively and charming melodies.

Ensembles

• Baroque Orchestra: The Baroque orchestra was a large ensemble consisting of string instruments, including violins, violas, cellos, and double basses. It also incorporated wind instruments such as flutes, oboes, bassoons, and horns. Additionally, a harpsichord or organ was often included as the continuo instrument, providing harmonic support and bassline. Baroque orchestras were typically employed for performing orchestral suites, concertos, and larger-scale compositions.
• Baroque Chamber Ensemble: A chamber ensemble was a smaller group of musicians that performed in more intimate settings, such as chambers or private rooms. The core of a chamber ensemble was often a trio sonata, which typically featured two melody instruments (such as violins) and continuo instruments (such as harpsichord and cello). Other chamber ensemble configurations included quartets, quintets, and larger ensembles. Chamber music was highly valued during the Baroque period, and composers like Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi wrote extensively for these smaller ensembles.
• Baroque Choir and Organ: Sacred music played a crucial role during the Baroque era, and the combination of a choir and organ was commonly employed for liturgical music and oratorio performances. The choir comprised multiple voice parts, including soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. The organ served as both a solo and accompanying instrument, providing harmonic support and filling out the sound. This ensemble was particularly prevalent in churches and cathedrals, where choral compositions and vocal works were performed.
• Baroque Solo Instrument with Continuo: This ensemble featured a solo instrument, such as a violin, cello, flute, or harpsichord, accompanied by continuo instruments. The continuo section typically included a harpsichord or organ playing the bassline and harmony, along with a bass instrument such as cello or bassoon. This ensemble allowed for virtuosic solo performances with a supporting harmonic foundation.
• Baroque Vocal Ensemble: Baroque vocal ensembles were employed for choral music and vocal compositions. These ensembles could range from smaller groups to larger choirs, depending on the specific composition and performance context. Vocal ensembles performed a wide range of vocal music, including madrigals, motets, choral works, and opera choruses.

Composers

• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750): A prolific composer known for his mastery of counterpoint and his compositions in various genres, including orchestral works, concertos, fugues, keyboard music, and choral music.
  - Famous works include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Well-Tempered Clavier, and the Mass in B minor.
• George Frideric Handel (1685-1759): A German-born composer who spent much of his career in England. Known for his operas, oratorios, and instrumental music.
  - Famous works include the oratorio "Messiah," the opera "Giulio Cesare," and the Water Music suites.
• Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741): An Italian composer and violinist known for his virtuosic violin concertos, particularly "The Four Seasons." He composed numerous concertos, operas, and sacred music.
• Henry Purcell (1659-1695): An English composer known for his contributions to English Baroque music.
  - Famous works include the opera "Dido and Aeneas," incidental music for plays, and sacred choral music.
• Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713): An Italian composer and violinist known for his influential violin sonatas and concerti grossi.
  - Famous works include the "Corelli's Op. 6 Concerti Grossi" and the "Sonatas for Violin and Continuo."
• Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757): An Italian composer known for his keyboard sonatas, which explored virtuosic and expressive possibilities of the harpsichord.
  - Famous works include the "Sonatas for Harpsichord" and the "Keyboard Exercises."
• Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764): A French composer known for his operas and his contributions to music theory.
  - Famous works include the opera "Hippolyte et Aricie" and the ballet "Les Indes galantes."
• Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767): A German composer known for his extensive output of instrumental and vocal music.
  - Famous works include the "Tafelmusik" collection, the "Paris Quartets," and the "Fantasias for Viola da Gamba."
• Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725): An Italian composer known for his operas and vocal music.
  - Famous works include the opera "Il Pompeo" and the "Stabat Mater."
• Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687): A French composer who played a crucial role in establishing the French Baroque style.
  - Famous works include the opera "Armide" and the ballet "Le Bourgeois gentilhomme."

Schools and Movements

• Italian Baroque: Italy was a major center of Baroque music during the 17th and early 18th centuries. Composers such as Claudio Monteverdi, Antonio Vivaldi, and Alessandro Scarlatti were associated with the Italian Baroque style.
• German Baroque: Germany also had a significant influence on Baroque music. Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann, and Heinrich Schütz were among the notable German Baroque composers.
• French Baroque: The French Baroque style was characterized by its elegance, refinement, and emphasis on dance rhythms. Jean-Baptiste Lully and François Couperin were key figures in the development of French Baroque music.
• English Baroque: England had its own distinctive Baroque style, influenced by both continental European styles and native traditions. Henry Purcell was a prominent English Baroque composer.
• Rococo: Towards the latter part of the Baroque period, the Rococo style emerged. It was characterized by its lightness, ornamental decoration, and delicate melodies. François Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau were associated with the Rococo style.
• Galant Style: Towards the end of the Baroque era, the Galant style emerged, foreshadowing the Classical period. It emphasized simplicity, clarity, and natural expression. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Johann Christian Bach were important figures in the Galant style.

Baroque vs Classical

• Melody and Harmony: In the Baroque period, melodies were often complex and ornate, while the Classical period emphasized simple, singable melodies. Harmonies in the Baroque period were based on elaborate figured bass and counterpoint, while the Classical period introduced functional tonality and chords.
• Texture: Baroque music was characterized by intricate polyphonic textures with multiple melodic lines, while Classical music embraced a homophonic texture, where a single melody takes prominence with accompaniment.
• Orchestra and Instrumentation: The Classical period witnessed the development of the modern orchestra, with a standardized instrumentation that included strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Baroque orchestras were generally smaller and had more diverse instrumentation.
• Expression and Dynamics: Baroque music had terraced dynamics with abrupt changes in volume, while Classical music introduced gradual dynamics, allowing for more nuanced expression. Composers also started using dynamic markings to guide performers.
• Compositional Style: Baroque music often involved improvisation and ornamentation, while Classical music was more focused on precise notation and interpretation as written by the composer.

Characteristics

• Melody: Classical melodies are often balanced, elegant, and singable. They are characterized by clear phrases and memorable themes.
• Harmony: Classical music introduced functional tonality, with a strong emphasis on major and minor keys. Harmonic progressions followed clear and predictable patterns.
• Rhythm: Classical music featured balanced and regular rhythms, with clear and symmetrical phrase structures. There was an increased use of regular meter and well-defined rhythmic patterns.
• Forms: Classical music employed standardized forms such as sonata form, minuet and trio, rondo, and theme and variations. These forms provided a clear organizational structure for compositions.
• Instrumentation: The Classical period saw the development of the modern orchestra, with a standardized instrumentation including strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Composers explored the expressive capabilities of these instruments.
• Dynamics: Classical music introduced a wide range of dynamics, allowing for gradual and subtle changes in volume. Composers indicated dynamic markings in the music to guide performers.
• Clarity and Balance: Classical music emphasized clarity of form, structure, and expression. Compositions were well-organized and balanced, with a sense of proportion and symmetry.

Timeline

• 1768: The Mannheim Orchestra in Germany gains recognition for its innovative techniques and becomes an influential center for orchestral composition and performance.
• 1770s: The symphony emerges as a significant genre in orchestral music, with composers like Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart making notable contributions.
• 1792: Ludwig van Beethoven moves to Vienna, where he studies under Haydn and begins to establish himself as a composer.
• 1799: Beethoven's Symphony No. 1, marking his entry into the symphonic genre, is premiered.
• 1827: Beethoven passes away, marking the end of the Classical period and the beginning of the Romantic era in music.

Forms

• Sonata Form: Sonata form, also known as the first movement form, became the primary structure for the opening movements of symphonies, concertos, and sonatas. It typically consists of three main sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation. Sonata form allowed composers to explore contrasting themes and develop them within a cohesive structure.
• Minuet and Trio: The minuet and trio form was a popular choice for the third movement of symphonies, string quartets, and other instrumental works. It typically consisted of a stately minuet section followed by a contrasting trio section, and then a return to the minuet. This form provided a lighter, dance-like interlude within the overall composition.
• Minuet and Trio: An example of the minuet and trio form can be found in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550. The third movement of this symphony features a graceful minuet section followed by a contrasting trio section before returning to the minuet.
• Rondo Form: Rondo form featured a recurring main theme or refrain interspersed with contrasting episodes. It provided a lively and memorable structure, often used for the final movement of symphonies, sonatas, and concertos. The form's repetitive nature allowed for the exploration of different melodic ideas while maintaining a sense of coherence.
• Rondo Form: Franz Joseph Haydn's Piano Sonata No. 62 in E-flat major, Hob. XVI:52, provides an example of rondo form. The final movement of this sonata follows a rondo structure, with a recurring main theme that alternates with contrasting episodes.
• Theme and Variations: Theme and variations form involved taking a simple theme and presenting a series of varied and embellished versions of that theme. Each variation would typically have its own distinct character and treatment while still retaining the recognizable elements of the original theme. This form showcased the composer's creativity and ability to transform a basic musical idea in various ways.
• Theme and Variations: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major, K. 331, includes a well-known example of theme and variations. The final movement, often referred to as "Alla Turca," presents a theme inspired by Turkish music, followed by several variations that explore different rhythms and embellishments.

Composers

• Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787): Gluck was a composer who revolutionized opera with his reform efforts. He sought to combine the dramatic expressiveness of Italian opera with the structural integrity of French opera. Gluck's works, such as "Orfeo ed Euridice" and "Alceste," introduced a new era of opera characterized by emotional depth and naturalistic expression.
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791): Mozart was a prolific composer who excelled in multiple genres, including symphonies, concertos, chamber music, operas, and choral music. His compositions showcase a perfect balance of elegance, lyricism, and technical mastery. Famous works include "Symphony No. 40," "Piano Concerto No. 21," and the opera "The Marriage of Figaro."
• Joseph Haydn (1732-1809): Haydn, known as the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet," made significant contributions to instrumental music. He composed over 100 symphonies, numerous chamber music works, and operas. Haydn's compositions display a rich sense of humor, inventive use of form, and melodic beauty. Notable works include his "London Symphonies," "String Quartets," and the oratorio "The Creation."
• Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827): Beethoven is a transitional figure who bridged the gap between the Classical and Romantic periods. His compositions are characterized by emotional intensity, innovative use of form, and powerful expression. Beethoven's works include symphonies, piano sonatas, string quartets, concertos, and opera. Famous pieces include his "Symphony No. 5," "Piano Sonata No. 14" (Moonlight Sonata), and the opera "Fidelio."

Schools and Movements

• Galant Style: The Galant style emerged as a reaction against the complexity of the Baroque era. It prioritized elegance, simplicity, and naturalness in music, with a focus on melodious and singable lines. Composers like Johann Christian Bach and Giovanni Paisiello embraced this style, creating music that was light, charming, and accessible.
• Mannheim School: The Mannheim School, centered in the city of Mannheim, Germany, was known for its innovation in orchestral music. Composers associated with this school, such as Johann Stamitz and Carl Stamitz, pioneered techniques like the Mannheim Rocket (rapidly ascending orchestral passages) and the Mannheim Crescendo (gradual increase in volume) that greatly influenced the development of symphonic writing.
• Vienna School: The Vienna School refers to the composers working in Vienna during the Classical period, particularly those associated with the Viennese classical style. The most prominent figures of the Vienna School were Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven. These composers shaped the symphony, sonata, and chamber music forms, and their works embodied the elegance, balance, and structural clarity characteristic of the Classical style.
• Sturm und Drang: Sturm und Drang, which translates to "storm and stress," was a literary and artistic movement that influenced music during the late 18th century. Composers such as Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and early works of Haydn and Mozart incorporated elements of intense emotions, dramatic contrasts, and stormy, turbulent music as a response to the cultural and social climate of the time.

Classical vs. Romantic

• Expression and Emotion: Classical music generally exhibits a more restrained and balanced expression, focusing on clarity, proportion, and formal structures. In contrast, Romantic music is characterized by heightened emotional expression, intense feelings, and a greater range of dynamics and moods.
• Melody and Harmony: Classical melodies tend to be simpler, balanced, and easily singable, often following clear and structured phrases. Romantic melodies, on the other hand, can be more complex, expressive, and richly ornamented. Harmonically, Classical music adheres to functional tonality and follows traditional chord progressions, while Romantic music explores more chromatic harmonies, dissonance, and unconventional chord progressions.
• Form and Structure: Classical music relies on established forms such as sonata form, minuet and trio, and theme and variations. These forms are characterized by symmetry, clear sections, and well-defined themes. In contrast, Romantic music often challenges traditional forms, experimenting with freer forms, programmatic elements, and expanded structures.
• Orchestra and Instrumentation: Classical music typically utilizes a smaller orchestra with a standardized instrumentation consisting of strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. In contrast, Romantic music often features larger orchestras with expanded instrumental sections, including more varied and specialized instruments.

Characteristics

• Expression of Emotion: Romantic music is known for its intense emotional expression, evoking a wide range of feelings and moods. Composers sought to convey deep personal emotions, passion, and individual expression through their music.
• Individualism: Romantic composers aimed to express their own unique musical voices and individuality. They moved away from strict rules and conventions, embracing artistic freedom and self-expression.
• Expanded Range of Dynamics: Romantic music explores a wider dynamic range, including extreme contrasts between loud and soft passages. This allows for greater expressive power and dramatic impact.
• Rich Harmony: Romantic composers expanded harmonic vocabulary, using complex chord progressions, chromaticism, and dissonance to create rich and colorful harmonies. This added depth and complexity to the music.
• Programmatic and Narrative Elements: Romantic music often incorporates programmatic elements, where the music tells a story or depicts a specific scene, person, or event. Composers used descriptive titles, programmatic instructions, and expressive techniques to evoke imagery and narratives.
• Expanded Forms and Structures: Romantic music challenged traditional forms and structures, often featuring longer and more expansive compositions. Composers experimented with extended symphonies, concertos, and character pieces.
• Nationalism: Romantic composers drew inspiration from their national identities and cultural heritage, incorporating folk tunes, traditional rhythms, and local musical styles into their compositions.
• Virtuosic Performances: Romantic music showcased technical virtuosity and demanding performances. Composers wrote intricate and challenging passages for individual instruments, highlighting the skills of performers.
• Love for Nature and the Sublime: Romantic composers were inspired by nature, often using musical elements to depict landscapes, natural phenomena, and the awe-inspiring power of the sublime.
• Expanded Orchestra: The Romantic period witnessed the development of larger orchestras with expanded instrumental sections, including new instruments and greater use of brass and percussion. This allowed for greater orchestral colors and sonorities.

Timeline

• 1813: Berlioz's "Symphonie fantastique" introduces programmatic elements and innovative orchestration techniques.
• 1833: Wagner's opera "Der fliegende Holländer" represents a new approach to opera, emphasizing the integration of music, drama, and orchestration.
• 1886: Strauss's tone poem "Also sprach Zarathustra" demonstrates the use of symphonic poems, which narrate a story or depict a scene using purely instrumental music.

Forms

• Symphonic Poem/Tone Poem: A single-movement orchestral work that tells a story or evokes a specific mood or scene through music. Examples include Liszt's "Les Préludes" and Richard Strauss's "Also sprach Zarathustra."
• Art Song/Lieder: A vocal composition for solo voice and piano, often based on poetry. The art song combines music and poetry to express emotions and narratives. Examples include Schubert's "Die schöne Müllerin" and Schumann's "Dichterliebe."
• Romantic Opera: Dramatic and emotional operatic works that explore intense human emotions and stories. Composers such as Verdi, Wagner, and Puccini created operas with elaborate music, rich orchestrations, and powerful vocal performances. Examples include Verdi's "La Traviata," Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde," and Puccini's "Tosca."
• Ballet: Romantic ballets often featured enchanting stories, fantasy elements, and expressive choreography. Composers like Tchaikovsky and Delibes created music that accompanied graceful and expressive dance movements. Examples include Tchaikovsky's "Swan Lake" and Delibes's "Coppélia."
• Character Piece: Short solo instrumental compositions that convey a specific mood or character. These pieces were often written for piano and were highly expressive and introspective. Examples include Chopin's Nocturnes, Mendelssohn's "Songs Without Words," and Grieg's "Lyric Pieces."
• Symphony: The symphony in the Romantic period expanded in size and scope, often with larger orchestras and more expressive writing. Composers such as Beethoven, Brahms, and Tchaikovsky composed symphonies that explored a wide range of emotions and featured intricate musical developments. Examples include Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Brahms's Symphony No. 4, and Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6 ("Pathétique").
• Concerto: The Romantic concerto highlighted the virtuosity and expressiveness of a solo instrument accompanied by an orchestra. Composers like Rachmaninoff, Tchaikovsky, and Mendelssohn composed concertos that showcased technical brilliance and emotional depth. Examples include Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2, Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto, and Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto.

Composers:

Early Romantic

• Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827): Beethoven was a transitional figure between the Classical and Romantic periods. His works, such as his symphonies, piano sonatas, and string quartets, pushed the boundaries of form, expression, and emotional intensity.
• Franz Schubert (1797-1828): Schubert was a prolific composer known for his lieder (art songs) and chamber music. His compositions combined lyricism, sensitivity, and introspection, capturing the essence of Romanticism.
• Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826): Weber was a German composer and conductor who played a crucial role in the development of German Romantic opera. His opera "Der Freischütz" is considered a landmark work of the Early Romantic period.
• Hector Berlioz (1803-1869): Berlioz was a French composer and conductor known for his innovative orchestration and programmatic compositions. His Symphonie fantastique, a vivid portrayal of the composer's unrequited love, is a prime example of his Romantic style.

Bel Canto Opera

• Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868): Rossini was an Italian composer known for his numerous operas, including "The Barber of Seville" and "La Cenerentola." His works are characterized by their lively melodies, vocal virtuosity, and comedic elements.
• Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835): Bellini was an Italian opera composer renowned for his expressive and melodic writing. His operas, such as "Norma" and "La sonnambula," emphasize lyrical beauty and showcase the abilities of the singers.
• Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848): Donizetti, another Italian composer, was highly prolific and composed over 70 operas. His works, including "Lucia di Lammermoor" and "L'elisir d'amore," are known for their bel canto style, with ornate vocal lines and emotional depth.

The Pianists

• Fanny Mendelssohn (1805-1847): Fanny Mendelssohn was a talented pianist and composer. Her music encompassed various genres, including piano music, chamber music, and vocal works.
• Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847): Felix Mendelssohn was a German composer, conductor, and pianist. He was known for his melodic and lyrically expressive compositions, combining the spirit of the Romantic era with classical clarity and elegance. Mendelssohn's works include symphonies, concertos, chamber music, and piano music, and he is particularly famous for his "Wedding March" from "A Midsummer Night's Dream" and his "Italian Symphony."
• Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849): Chopin, known as the "Poet of the Piano," was a Polish composer and pianist. His compositions were deeply expressive and showcased his mastery of the instrument. He is renowned for his poetic and lyrical piano works, including his nocturnes, etudes, and ballades.
• Robert Schumann (1810-1856): Robert Schumann was a German composer and pianist known for his significant contributions to Romantic music. He composed numerous piano works, including character pieces, sonatas, and cycles. Schumann's compositions often reflected his introspective and passionate nature, combining emotional depth with technical brilliance. His music explores a wide range of moods and musical textures, captivating audiences with its expressive power and poetic sensibility.
• Franz Liszt (1811-1886): Liszt was not only a virtuoso pianist but also a composer and conductor. He revolutionized piano playing with his extraordinary technique and innovative compositions, such as his dazzling piano transcriptions and his symphonic poems.
• Clara Schumann (1819-1896): Clara Schumann, a German pianist and composer, was one of the most prominent pianists of the Romantic era. She was celebrated for her exceptional technical skills and interpretative abilities. Additionally, she was a key promoter of her husband Robert Schumann's music.

French Grand Opera

• Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864): Meyerbeer, a German composer who worked extensively in France, was a prominent figure in the development of French grand opera. His notable works include "Les Huguenots" and "Le prophète," which combined dramatic storytelling, large-scale orchestration, and elaborate vocal ensembles.
• Charles Gounod (1818-1893): Gounod, a French composer, is best known for his opera "Faust," which exemplifies the grand opera style. His works feature sweeping melodies, dramatic storytelling, and lush orchestrations.

Verdi

• Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): Verdi, an Italian composer, is considered one of the greatest opera composers of all time. His operas, such as "La traviata," "Rigoletto," and "Aida," are characterized by their powerful melodies, intense drama, and emotional depth.

Wagner

• Richard Wagner (1813-1883): Wagner, a German composer, revolutionized opera with his concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, or "total artwork," which integrated music, drama, and visual elements. His monumental works, including "Tristan und Isolde" and "Der Ring des Nibelungen," explored mythological and philosophical themes.

Strauss

• Johann Strauss II (1825-1899): Known as the "Waltz King," Johann Strauss II composed numerous waltzes that became iconic and synonymous with the genre. Some of his famous waltzes include "The Blue Danube," "Tales from the Vienna Woods," and "Emperor Waltz."

Brahms

• Johannes Brahms (1833-1897): Brahms, a German composer and pianist, is considered one of the most important figures of the Romantic period. He combined Classical forms and structure with a Romantic expressiveness in his compositions, which include symphonies, chamber music, and piano works.

Light Opera

• Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880): Offenbach was a German-French composer known as the "Father of Operetta." His works, such as "Orpheus in the Underworld" and "The Tales of Hoffmann," combined catchy melodies, lively rhythms, and comedic elements, making him one of the most influential composers of light opera.
• W.S. Gilbert (1836-1911) and Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900): This duo created a series of immensely popular light operas in Victorian England. Gilbert, the librettist, and Sullivan, the composer, collaborated on works such as "The Pirates of Penzance," "H.M.S. Pinafore," and "The Mikado." Their operettas combined witty and satirical lyrics with Sullivan's delightful melodies.

French Opera

• Georges Bizet (1838-1875): Bizet, a French composer, is best known for his opera "Carmen," which has become one of the most popular and enduring works in the operatic repertoire. His compositions were marked by their vibrant melodies, rhythmic vitality, and evocative portrayal of Spanish culture.
• Jules Massenet (1842-1912): Massenet, a French composer, was one of the leading figures in French opera during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His operas, including "Manon" and "Werther," featured lyrical melodies, refined orchestration, and a strong focus on character development.
• Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921): Saint-Saëns, a French composer, composed several operas, including "Samson et Dalila," which remains his most famous operatic work. Known for his melodic elegance and classical sensibility, Saint-Saëns contributed to the French opera tradition of the Romantic period.

The Russian Nationalists

• Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857): Glinka is often considered the father of Russian classical music. His compositions, such as the opera "A Life for the Tsar" and the orchestral work "Russlan and Ludmilla," were influenced by Russian folk music and played a crucial role in establishing a nationalistic musical style.
• Alexander Borodin (1833-1887): Borodin's compositions, such as the symphonic poem "In the Steppes of Central Asia" and the opera "Prince Igor," combined Western classical traditions with Russian folk influences. His works celebrated the rich musical heritage of Russia and its diverse cultural influences.
• Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881): Mussorgsky was a key figure in the Russian nationalist movement. His compositions, including the opera "Boris Godunov" and the piano suite "Pictures at an Exhibition," captured the essence of Russian history, folklore, and culture through their distinctive harmonies and expressive melodies.
• Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908): Rimsky-Korsakov was known for his brilliant orchestration and richly colored compositions. He incorporated Russian folk melodies and oriental influences into works such as the symphonic suite "Scheherazade" and the opera "The Tale of Tsar Saltan." Rimsky-Korsakov also mentored other Russian nationalist composers, including Igor Stravinsky.

Tchaikovsky

Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893): Tchaikovsky was a Russian composer known for his emotionally charged music, particularly his ballets ("Swan Lake," "The Nutcracker," "Sleeping Beauty") and symphonies ("Symphony No. 4," "Symphony No. 5," "Symphony No. 6").

Eurpoean Nationalists

• Bedřich Smetana (1824-1884): Smetana was a Czech composer who played a crucial role in the development of Czech nationalist music. His orchestral work "Má vlast" (My Homeland) and the opera "The Bartered Bride" expressed Czech national identity through vivid musical portrayals of Czech landscapes and folk traditions.
• Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904): Dvořák, also a Czech composer, furthered the Czech nationalist movement with his compositions. His symphonies, chamber music, and operas, such as "Symphony No. 9" (From the New World) and the opera "Rusalka," incorporated Czech folk melodies and rhythms, creating a distinctly nationalistic sound.
• Edvard Grieg (1843-1907): Grieg, a Norwegian composer, contributed to the Norwegian nationalist movement. His compositions, including the Piano Concerto in A minor and the incidental music for Henrik Ibsen's play "Peer Gynt," drew inspiration from Norwegian folk music and landscapes, reflecting the spirit of Norwegian identity.
• Leoš Janáček (1854-1928): Janáček was a Czech composer known for his distinctive style that incorporated elements of Moravian folk music and speech inflections. His compositions, such as the opera "Jenůfa" and the Sinfonietta, reflected his nationalist sensibilities and exploration of Czech and Slavic themes.
• Jean Sibelius (1865-1957): Sibelius, a Finnish composer, is often considered one of the most significant figures in Finnish and Nordic nationalist music. His compositions, including the tone poem "Finlandia" and the symphony cycle "Lemminkäinen Suite," celebrated Finnish mythology, nature, and cultural heritage.

Puccini

• Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924): Puccini, an Italian composer, is renowned for his emotionally charged and melodically rich operas. Works such as "La Bohème," "Tosca," and "Madama Butterfly" exemplify his ability to capture human passions and create poignant and memorable musical moments.

Later French Romantics

• César Franck (1822-1890): Though born in Belgium, Franck spent much of his life in France and is considered part of the French musical tradition. His compositions, characterized by their rich harmonies and cyclic forms, include his Symphony in D minor, the tone poem "Les Djinns," and his organ works.
• Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924): A leading figure of French late Romanticism, Fauré's music is characterized by its subtle harmonies, refined melodies, and emotional depth. Famous works include his Requiem, "Pavane," and piano compositions such as Nocturnes and Barcarolles.
• Cécile Chaminade (1857-1944): Chaminade gained popularity for her charming and lyrical compositions, particularly her piano music and art songs. Some of her well-known works include the "Concertino for Flute and Orchestra," "Autumn," and "La Lisonjera."

Later Austrian Romantics

• Anton Bruckner (1824-1896) is often associated with the late Romantic era due to the complexity and grandeur of his symphonies. His symphonies, such as the "Symphony No. 4" (often referred to as the "Romantic Symphony") and the "Symphony No. 8," are considered among his most significant contributions to the orchestral repertoire.
• Hugo Wolf (1860-1903): Wolf was an Austrian composer known for his exceptional contributions to the genre of lied. His lieder, including the monumental song cycle "Mörike-Lieder," feature intricate piano accompaniments and deeply expressive settings of poetry.
• Gustav Mahler (1860-1911): Mahler's symphonies, particularly his later works, exhibit elements of both Romanticism and early Modernism. He expanded the traditional symphonic form and explored innovative harmonic language, foreshadowing developments in the 20th century.

Strauss

• Richard Strauss (1864-1949): Strauss composed works that spanned the late Romantic and early Modern periods. While he embraced Romanticism in his earlier tone poems and operas, his later works, such as "Elektra" and "Salome," pushed boundaries with their dissonance and extended tonality.

Movements and Schools

• Nationalism: This movement emphasized the expression of national identity and culture through music. Composers sought to incorporate folk melodies, rhythms, and themes from their respective countries into their compositions.
  - Example: Bedřich Smetana's "Má vlast" (My Country) portrays the landscape, history, and folklore of Bohemia.
• Program Music: Program music aimed to convey specific extra-musical ideas, stories, or scenes through instrumental music. Composers used descriptive titles or programmatic cues to guide listeners in interpreting their compositions.
  - "Symphonie fantastique" by Hector Berlioz i
• Chromaticism: Romantic composers explored the use of chromaticism, incorporating more complex and colorful harmonic progressions, increased dissonance, and unconventional chord structures. This allowed for heightened emotional expression and a richer harmonic palette.
  - Example: Franz Liszt's "Liebestraum No. 3" showcases lush chromatic harmonies and expressive melodic lines.
• Exoticism: Composers were fascinated with the exotic and sought inspiration from foreign lands and cultures. They incorporated elements of non-Western music, folk tunes, and unique musical instruments to evoke an atmosphere of the exotic in their compositions.
  - Example: Maurice Ravel's "Rapsodie espagnole" captures the vibrant colors and rhythms of Spanish music, infusing it with a French impressionistic style.

Composers

Impressionism

• Claude Debussy (1862-1918): Debussy is often regarded as one of the pioneers of musical Impressionism. This movement, influenced by the Impressionist art movement, sought to capture fleeting impressions, moods, and atmospheres through music. Debussy's compositions, such as his orchestral piece "Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune" and his piano suite "Clair de Lune," exhibit the characteristic use of vivid harmonies, colorful orchestration, and evocative melodies associated with Impressionism.
• Maurice Ravel (1875-1937): Ravel is another influential composer associated with Impressionism. His compositions exhibit rich harmonies, intricate textures, and vivid orchestration. Well-known works by Ravel include "Boléro," "Daphnis et Chloé," and his piano suite "Gaspard de la nuit."

Movements and Schools

Neo-Classicism: As a reaction against the expressive and emotional excesses of Romanticism, some composers sought a return to classical forms and structures. They embraced clarity, simplicity, and balance in their compositions, often drawing inspiration from the music of the Classical period.
- Example: Igor Stravinsky's "Pulcinella Suite" pays homage to the music of the 18th century, reimagining themes by Baroque composer Giovanni Battista Pergolesi.

The Impressionist movement in music emerged primarily in France during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was characterized by a focus on capturing fleeting moods, sensory impressions, and the nuances of light and color in musical compositions. While there is no strict definition of Impressionist music, several composers are often associated with this style. Debussy and Ravel are among the prominent Impressionistic composers.

• Plain chant (or Gregorian chant, a single melodic line) developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and Gallican chants, and was commissioned by the Carolingian rulers in France.
• Organum is a melodic line of a plainchant accompanied by an additional voice, usually at a fixed interval below it. It began developing in the 9th Century, creating early forms of counterpoint (the relationship between simultaneous interdependent musical lines) and the beginning of harmony. Monophony, polyphony, homophony
• Stephen of Liège, Bishop of Liège, 901 - 920, Gloria Patri (Gregorian chant)
• Hildegard of Bingen, 1098-1179, A feather on the breath of God
• Peter Abelard, 1079-1142, Planctus David super Saul et Jonathan

• The Notre-Dame school is associated with a highly florid or “melismatic” (having several pitches to a syllable) style of organum.
• Léonin, ca 1150s-1201, first to write two melodic parts with greater independence and strict note lengths, first composer of polyphonic art music, Viderunt Omnes (Organum)
• Pérotin (Perotinus Magnus), ca 12-13th cent, first ever four-part polyphony, Beata Viscera II (Organum)

• Philippe de Vitry, wrote influential treatise on Ars Nova, Vos qui admiramini (Ars Nova motet)
• Guillaume de Machaut, 1300/1305-1377, central figure of Ars Nova, many secular works with lyrics describing courtly love, Messe de Nostre Dame (a sacred work)
• Adam de la Halle, French trouvère (troubadour), first polyphonic secular songs Qui a droit veut amours servir (a sacred work)

• Guillaume Dufay, 1397-1474, transitional figure between the Medieval and Renaissance Nuper Rosarum Flores (complex motet)
• Josquin des Prez, 1450 – 1520, Missa L’Homme armé super voces musicales
• Giovanni Palestrina, 1525 – 1594, Missa Aeterna Christi munera
• Thomas Tallis, 1505 – 1575, Spem In Alium (motet)
• William Byrd, 1543 – 1623, Mass for 4 Voices

During the Renaissance period, masses and motets were the most common sacred forms, and madrigals were the most common secular form.

A motet is a polyphonic composition based on a sacred text and usually sung without accompaniment. It evolved from organum and was sometimes called a sacred madrigal.

A madrigal is a polyphonic song using a vernacular text and written for four to six voices. It is the secular counterpart to the motet.

In 1581, Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo), a member of the Florentine Camerata laid down the theories of opera.

• Claudio Monteverdi, 1567 – 1643, transitional figure between Renaissance and Baroque. He wrote many madrigals and developed the Italian operatic style, L'Orfeo (1607) is the earliest opera still widely performed.
• Arcangelo Corelli, 1653 - 1713, helped establish many new features of Baroque music, including tonal keys (vs medieval modes) and the sonata and concerto grosso forms.
• Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750, employed many forms including concerto grosso, fugue, cantata.
• George Frideric Handel, 1685-1759, famous for operas and oratorios.

Prior to the 16th century, most "cultured" music was vocal. Instrumental music played an important role in dance, but for the most part, it was not played for its own sake. That began to change during the Renaissance, and especially, the Baroque periods.

Major vocal forms during the Baroque period include the oratorio, opera and cantata. Major instrumental forms include the sonata, concerto, fugue and suite.

• Musical monody was developed by the Florentine Camerata in the 1580s to restore ancient Greek ideas of melody and declamation (probably with little historical accuracy). In part, it was a reaction against the complicated polyphony that dominated the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
• In monody one solo voice sings a melodic part, usually with considerable ornamentation, over a rhythmically independent bass line.
• Basso continuo, or figured bass, was played by an instrumentalist who was free to play any notes as long as they followed the harmonic figures written above the bass part.
• Giulio Caccini’s Le nuove musiche (1602; The New Music), a collection of solo songs with continuo accompaniment, exemplifies early monody, as do many solo compositions of Claudio Monteverdi.

• An opera is a dramatic work in one or more acts which incorporates many elements of theater. Here is a nice summary of the differences between opera and oratorio.
• The earliest operas date from around 1600. Monteverdi L'Orfeo (1607).
• Opera was the leading genre in the 17th and 18th centuries.

An oratorio is an extended musical drama with a text based on religious subject matter. There is usually little or no interaction between the characters in oratorio; there is neither scenery nor action.

• Cantata, from cantare, "to sing"
• A vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements.
• The term "cantata" changed over time, from the simple single-voice madrigal of the early 17th century, to the multi-voice "cantata da camera" and the "cantata da chiesa" of the later part of that century.
• The Italian solo cantata tended, when on a large scale, to become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera, in the same way the church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable from a small oratorio or portion of an oratorio.
• J.S. Bach Cantata Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme BWV 140 "Wake, Awake, for Night Is Flying"

• Sonata, from the Italian word "to sound"
• A musical composition for a solo instrument or a small ensemble that typically has two to four movements.
• After the Baroque period most works designated as sonatas specifically are performed by a solo instrument, most often a keyboard instrument, or by a solo instrument accompanied by a keyboard instrument.
• The Classical sonata developed from the sonata da chiesa.
• Most first movements of Classical sonatas are in sonata form.
• Mozart Piano Sonata No. 16 in C major
• Beethoven Piano Sonata No. 14 Moonlight in C major

• Originating in the early 17th century, the trio sonata was a favorite chamber ensemble combination in the Baroque era.
• The trio sonata typically consisted of three parts, two violins and continuo. The the basso continuo has two components. First, it includes the bass line, which commonly was played by a bass viol, violone, violoncello, or bassoon. Second, it includes a harmony-producing instrument, such as a small organ, a harpsichord, or a theorbo.
• From about the middle of the 17th century two distinct types of sonatas appeared: sonata da camera (chamber sonata) and sonata da chiesa (church sonata). Sonatas da chiesa ("church sonatas") usually consists of four movements, in the order slow–fast–slow–fast. Sonatas da camera ("chamber sonatas") often consisted of a prelude followed by a succession of dances. (After 1700, works comprising dance movements came to be called a variety of other names, such as partita, suite, ordre, ouverture, or air.)
• Arcangelo Corelli composed “solo” sonatas, for one violin with continuo, and trio sonatas (or sonatas a tre), for two violins and continuo.
• Corelli Trio Sonata in G major, Op. 2, No. 12, 'Ciacona' Largo Allegro from Opus 2: 12 sonate da camera (trio sonatas for 2 violins and continuo) (Rome 1685)
• Corelli Trio Sonata in D Major, Op. 3, No. 2 from Opus 3: 12 sonate da chiesa (trio sonatas for 2 violins and continuo) (Rome 1689)
• Corelli Sonata Op. 5, no. 1 in D major from Opus 5: 12 Suonati a violino e violone o cimbalo (The first six are sonate da chiesa and the last six are sonate da camera. The last sonata, No. 12, is a set of 23 variations on the theme La Folia.) (Rome 1700)
• J.S. Bach Trio Sonata from The Musical Offering, BWV 1079

• A concerto is an instrumental composition, written for one or more soloists accompanied by an orchestra or other ensemble.
• The concerto began to take its modern shape in the late-Baroque period, beginning with the concerto grosso form developed by Arcangelo Corelli. Christmas Concerto, Adagio Op. 6 No. 8 Voices of Music.
• The concerto grosso is a baroque musical composition in which the musical material is passed between a small group of soloists (the concertino) and full orchestra (the ripieno, tutti or concerto grosso). This is in contrast to the solo concerto which features a single solo instrument with the melody line, accompanied by the orchestra.
• The most dominant type of concerto in the 18th century was the solo concerto.
• Bach Harpsichord concerto in F minor, BWV 1056
• Vivaldi Four Seasons
• Mozart Clarinet concerto in A major, K.622

• A fugue is a contrapuntal composition for a number of separate parts or voices. Here is an instructive video on the fugue.

• Based on the traditional pairing of dances in the Renaissance, the suite was the first multi-movement work for instruments. The suite was essentially a series of dances in the same key, most or all of them in two-part form. Johann Jakob Froberger is usually credited with establishing the classical suite (e.g., Suite XII for harpsichord). Les Pièces de Clavecin, Suite in A minor No.3 by Élisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre, a 17th century composer, is another example .
  • Allemande
  • Courante – upbeat in triple metre
  • Sarabande – slow in triple metre
  • Gigue – upbeat in compound metre

• Franz Joseph Haydn, 1732-1809, Father of the Symphony and String Quartet
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1756-1791
• Ludwig van Beethoven, 1770-1827 (transitional)
• Franz Schubert, 1797-1828 (transitional)
• Gioachino Rossini, 1792–1868 (transitional), champion of the bel canto style, The Barber of Seville

• A work usually in three or four movements, with the first movement usually in sonata form.
• The opera sinfonia, or Italian overture, is often considered the direct forerunner of the three-movement symphony.
• By the 18th century, Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725) had helped standardize the opera sinfonia's structure of three contrasting movements: fast, slow, fast and dance-like.
• The Italian composer Giovanni Battista Sammartini incorporated the fast-slow-fast movement structure in most of his symphonic works, and he started using an early version of sonata-form for his first movements.
• In the mid-1700s, Johann Stamitz, composer for the Mannheim Orchestra, began composing four-movement symphonies. He expanded the length of the sonata-form in the first movements and created greater contrast between the two themes (see, for example, his Symphony in E-flat op. 11 #3).
• Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven further developed the four-movement pattern, starting with a movement in sonata form followed by a slower movement, a Minuet and a lively finale.
• Sonata form is in three parts - exposition, development, and recapitulation.

• Chamber music is a form of classical music that is composed for a small group of instruments.
• A string quartet can refer to either a type of musical composition or a group of four people who play them.
• The string quartet can be traced back to the Baroque trio sonata
• Joseph Haydn is responsible for the string quartet in its now accepted form and is generally credited with creating the modern form of chamber music as we know it.
• In 68 string quartets, 45 piano trios, and numerous string trios, duos and wind ensembles, Haydn established the conversational style of composition and the overall form that was to dominate the world of chamber music for the next two centuries.
• Joseph Haydn String Quartet in C major op 20 no 2

• Carl Marie von Weber, 1786 - 1826
• Frédéric Chopin, 1810 - 1849
• Robert Schumann, 1810 - 56
• Franz Liszt, 1811 - 1886
• Giuseppe Verdi, 1813 - 1901), La traviata, Rigoletto, Nabucco, Aida, La forza del destino, Il trovatore
• Richard Wagner, 1813 - 1883
• Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, 1840 - 1893
• Johannes Brahms, 1833 - 1897
• Antonín Dvořák, 1841 – 1904, 2nd movement Symphony No.9 In E Minor, Op.95 'From The New World'
• Giacomo Puccini, 1858 - 1924), La bohème, Tosca, Madame Butterfly, Turandot
• Sergei Rachmaninov, 1873 - 1943), Second Piano Concerto
• Gustav Mahler, 1860 - 1911

Der Freischütz (The Marksman), 1821, marks the birth of German Romantic opera.

The Romantic Period was characterized by new musical structures like the song cycle, nocturne, etude; nature and the supernatural; nationalism; and program music, symphonic poem.

Hector Berlioz's Symphony fantastique helped inaugurate the Romantic interest in programmatic music or tone poems.