• Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464) is considered the patriarch of the Medici family and the de facto ruler of Florence for several decades. He was a shrewd banker and a significant patron of the arts, supporting artists and scholars such as Donatello and Brunelleschi.
• Piero di Cosimo de' Medici (1416-1469), also known as Piero the Gouty, was the son of Cosimo de' Medici.
• Lorenzo de' Medici (1449-1492), also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, continued his family's patronage of the arts, literature, and philosophy.
• Pope Leo X (1475-1521). Born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, he became Pope Leo X in 1513. He was a great patron of the arts and a supporter of the famous artist Raphael. His father was Lorenzo the Magnificent.
• Pope Clement VII (1478-1534). Born Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici, he was the illegitimate son of Giuliano de' Medici, the brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent. His papacy (1523-1534) was marked by political and religious turmoil, including the sack of Rome in 1527.
• Catherine de' Medici (1519-1589) became Queen of France through her marriage to King Henry II. As the powerful queen mother of three French kings, she exerted significant influence on French politics during a tumultuous period.
• Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-1574), also known as Cosimo the Great, was the first Grand Duke of Tuscany. He centralized power in Tuscany and transformed Florence into a hereditary duchy. He supported artists like Michelangelo, writers like Machiavelli, and scientists like Galileo Galilei,.
• Ferdinando I de' Medici (1549-1609) succeeded his father, Cosimo I, as the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Ferdinando was known for his patronage of Galileo Galileiand the establishment of scientific institutions in Tuscany.

• Emperor Maximilian I (1459-1519) played a crucial role in consolidating Habsburg power and expanding the family's territories through strategic marriages.
• Philip the Handsome, a Habsburg archduke, married Joanna of Castile, the daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, making her the heir to the Spanish throne. (Her sister was Catherine of Aragon, 1485-1536.) The marriage of Philip and Joanna led to a personal union between the Habsburg dynasty and the Spanish monarchy.
• Emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) (1500-1558), the son of Joanna and Philip, was one of the most powerful monarchs of his time. He inherited the Spanish crown from his maternal grandparents, Isabella and Ferdinand, and the Habsburg crown from his paternal side. In 1522, he abdicated his thrones and divided his realms between his younger brother Ferdinand and his son Philip.
• Emperor Ferdinand I (1503-1564) succeeded his brother, Charles V, as Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand I played a pivotal role in achieving the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which temporarily resolved religious conflicts within the Holy Roman Empire.
• Philip II of Spain (1527-1598) ruled the Spanish Empire at its zenith but is also responsible for the Spanish Armada's failed invasion of England, which helped lead to Spain's decline. He supported prominent artists, including painters like El Greco and writers like Cervantes, contributing to the flourishing of Spanish arts and culture during the Spanish Golden Age.
• Charles II of Spain (1661-1700). Charles II's reign was marked by severe health issues and his inability to produce an heir, leading to the War of the Spanish Succession.
• Maria Theresa (1717-1780) ruled the Habsburg dominions during a challenging period, implementing significant administrative and legal reforms and was one of the most prominent female rulers of her time. She was a patron of Enlightenment thought and culture. Voltaire and Gluck were among those who benefited from her patronage.
• Marie Antoinette (1755-1793), daughter of Maria Theresa, became Queen of France through her marriage to King Louis XVI.
• Prince Nikolaus II Esterházy (1765-1833), was a member of The House of Esterházy, a prominent Hungarian noble family that played a significant role in the Kingdom of Hungary, which was part of the Habsburg Monarchy. He was a significant patron of Joseph Haydn.

• Henry VII (1485-1509) established the Tudor dynasty after defeating Richard III. His reign brought about the end of the Wars of the Roses.
• Henry VIII (1509-1547). Henry VIII's reign was marked by his separation from the Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England. His first wife was Catherine of Aragon.
• Edward VI (1547-1553). Edward's short reign was marked by the strengthening of the Church of England.
• Mary I (1553-1558). The daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary I attempted to restore Catholicism to England, earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary" due to her persecution of Protestants.
• Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Her rule saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada and the flourishing of English culture and influence abroad.

• James I (1603-1625), also known as James VI of Scotland, united the crowns of England and Scotland, marking the beginning of the Stuart era in England.
• Charles I (1625-1649). Charles I's reign was marked by conflicts with Parliament, leading to the English Civil War. He was eventually tried and executed in 1649, leading to the Interregnum.
• Oliver Cromwell (1653-1658). As Lord Protector, Cromwell ruled England following the execution of Charles I.
• Charles II (1660-1685) was restored to the throne after the Interregnum.
• James II (1685-1688). James II's Catholicism and efforts to expand royal authority led to his ousting during the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
• William III (1689-1702) and Mary II (1689-1694) were invited to rule jointly, following the ousting of King James II.
• Anne (1702-1714). Queen Anne's reign marked the end of the Stuart dynasty and the beginning of the Hanoverian succession, as she had no surviving heirs.

• Henry IV (1589-1610) played a key role in ending the French Wars of Religion by converting to Catholicism and issuing the Edict of Nantes, granting religious tolerance to Protestants.
• Louis XIII (1610-1643). With Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIII centralized royal power and reduced the influence of the nobility.
• Louis XIV (1643-1715). Known as the "Sun King," the reign of Louis XIV was marked by absolute monarchy, cultural achievements, and military expansion. He began the transformation of a modest hunting lodge in Versailles into a mgnificent Palace.
• Louis XV (1715-1774): Louis XV's reign saw a decline in the monarchy's prestige and power.
• Louis XVI (1774-1792). Louis XVI's reign was marked by financial difficulties and social unrest. He was eventually executed in 1793.